Siirry sisältöön
Funders:

A functioning food web sustains marine life.


Contents

Food chains form a food web

In a food chain, matter and energy are transferred from one organism to another, and thus from one trophic level to the next. Together, food chains form a food web. Every level of the food web is vital to the balance of the ecosystem. Even small changes within the food web can ripple through and affect other parts of it. That’s why it’s important for people to understand how food webs function and to take care of their health and stability.

Lots of animals and algae from microscopic to fish and seals connected with arrows, forming a web or a net.
A food chain illustrates how different organisms are connected to one another and how matter and energy flow from primary producers to predators—and eventually back to the beginning of the chain.

Did you know?


The decline in cod affects herring and its food sources

The Baltic Sea cod population has declined sharply over the past few decades. Cod has been overfished, and its reproduction in the Baltic Sea has become more difficult: the salty bottom areas crucial for cod eggs are in poor condition.

Cod feed heavily on herring. Now that cod numbers are low, the herring population has room to grow. However, this isn’t entirely beneficial for the herring. They must compete more fiercely for food—both among themselves and with sprat. As food becomes scarce, herring in many areas remain quite small.

Intense competition for food also affects the animals that herring and sprat feed on. These fish consume zooplankton, but they selectively eat the largest species with the highest nutritional value. When there are many feeders, the composition of zooplankton changes: smaller species like water fleas dominate, and they offer poorer nutrition for the fish.

Primary producers, that is, green plants and algae

At the base of the food web, there is an abundance of organisms. This level includes the primary producers—green plants and algae. Algae come in many forms, ranging from large species like bladderwrack and red algae to tiny single-celled planktonic algae, known as phytoplankton, which are the most important primary producers in the sea. Primary producers perform photosynthesis, converting sunlight into chemical energy in the form of sugars, which they use to build their own cells. This process lays the foundation for the entire food web.

In winter, phytoplankton are nearly absent from the water—there is so little light in the sea that algae cannot photosynthesize or grow. During this time, algae also do not consume the nutrients in the water, so nutrient levels are at their highest in winter. When spring arrives, light increases and the seawater begins to warm. Then, the dormant forms of phytoplankton awaken, and planktonic algae begin to grow and reproduce.

The most important nutrients for primary producers in the Baltic Sea are phosphorus and nitrogen. Therefore, phosphorus and nitrogen emissions from land enhance the growth of algae and plants, leading to eutrophication.

Did you know?


Half of the oxygen you breathe comes from marine phytoplankton.

Approximately 2,000 species of phytoplankton are known from the Baltic Sea.

In most of the open waters of the Gulf of Finland, nitrogen is the limiting nutrient. In contrast, phosphorus is the limiting nutrient in the open waters of the Bothnian Sea.

Grazers feed on primary producers

In the second layer of the food web are the grazers, which feed on primary producers. A large portion of these grazers consists of zooplankton, such as water fleas, copepods, and other crustaceans. Among these, copepods are the most important group for the Baltic Sea food web, as they serve as a key food source for many larger animals, including jellyfish and herring. Copepods themselves feed on phytoplankton, although the largest species also consume smaller zooplankton.

In addition to the amount of phytoplankton and predation pressure, the abundance and species composition of zooplankton are also influenced by the salinity and temperature of the water.

Predators feed on zooplankton and smaller predators

Above the grazers are predators, arranged in multiple layers. Zooplankton are eaten by fish such as herring and other schooling species that live in the open waters of the Baltic Sea. These smaller fish, in turn, are preyed upon by larger predatory fish like cod. At the very top are apex predators, which are not eaten by any other species in the sea. In the Baltic Sea food web, apex predators include animals such as the white-tailed eagle and seals.

Did you know?


Harmful substances move upward through the food web and accumulate in top predators. For example, white-tailed eagles nearly disappeared from Finland due to mercury that ended up in the water. As mercury built up in the eagles, it weakened the shells of their eggs. The eggs couldn’t withstand the weight of the brooding parent and were crushed.

The health of fish stocks in the Baltic Sea is regulated by the sea’s nutrient levels and fishing practices. Many prey fish species have a minimum catch size, intended to ensure that fish have a chance to reproduce before being caught. Seal hunting is also regulated. For grey seals, regional catch quotas have been established.

Decomposers break down compounds and return them to the beginning of the food web

At the end of the food chain are decomposers, which feed on dead organisms and their waste. They break down the complex compounds within these organisms into simple raw materials that primary producers can use. In this way, matter cycles back to the base of the food web.

Energy, on the other hand, is consumed along the way by the life processes of organisms, and the remaining energy is released as heat when the organism decomposes. Therefore, primary producers must continuously capture new energy from sunlight.

The microbial loop is a special case within the food web

The food chain that begins with primary producers is not the only pathway through which energy moves from one level to another in the sea. Another route starts with bacterial activity. This pathway is called the microbial loop. Bacteria are able to utilize organic matter dissolved in the water. Using this energy, they reproduce and build their own biomass.

Where do the organic substances in seawater come from? Some originate from the metabolism of marine organisms, such as fish excrement. However, the majority comes from land. As rainwater flows across the surface of the ground, it dissolves humus and other organic materials from the soil. These substances are carried by water into streams, lakes, rivers, and eventually into the sea. Additional organic matter also enters the water from residential and industrial wastewater. All of these materials serve as food for bacteria.

The microbial loop loses more energy

As bacteria convert dissolved organic matter in the water into their own biomass, they simultaneously open up a new pathway for energy transfer. However, this bacteria-based route is more complex than the one that begins with algae and other primary producers, as it involves more steps at the start. The microbial loop might proceed like this: bacterium → flagellate → ciliate → zooplankton → herring… In contrast, the route starting from primary producers goes directly from phytoplankton to zooplankton.

Because the microbial loop has many steps, energy is transferred less efficiently. Therefore, a very large amount of bacterial biomass is needed for a herring to obtain its daily food through this pathway.

The microbial loop is the only route through which dissolved organic matter is returned to the rest of the food web.

In the Gulf of Bothnia, bacteria thrive

The importance of the microbial loop to the Baltic Sea ecosystem varies by marine region. Its role is greatest in the Gulf of Bothnia, where the surrounding environment contains many bogs and other peatlands. Waters flowing from these areas are rich in humus, which bacteria can utilize.

In addition to organic matter, bacteria also require nutrients—just like algae do. The difference is that bacteria can make use of much lower nutrient concentrations than algae. As a result, they compete effectively with algae for nutrients and help reduce the eutrophying impact of nutrient loading.